An Examination of Kenya’s Foundational Learning Evidence Base

By Christine Nzomo

The pursuit of enhancing foundational learning outcomes is among the most urgent challenges facing Kenya’s education system today. As schools nationwide aim to provide foundational learners with crucial literacy and numeracy competencies, a pivotal question continues to arise: How can we guarantee the effectiveness of our initiatives when the evidence base is inconsistent and lacking? An analysis of evidence in the foundational learning ecosystem in Kenya, conducted through the Unlocking Data Initiative, reveals critical evidence gaps (Unlocking Data, n.d.). The results of the evidence gap map highlight both the progress made and the significant effort still required to establish an education system based on robust, practical evidence.

The Intervention-Based Evidence Landscape 

The evidence gap map unearthed several critical intervention areas that remain understudied, with limited or inconclusive evidence on their effectiveness. These include:

  • Remedial and accelerated learning programs, which aim to address learning gaps but lack robust empirical support regarding their long-term impact. 
  • Behavioural interventions, often designed to improve student engagement and classroom dynamics, have insufficient evidence regarding their scalability and sustainability across diverse educational settings. 
  • Technology-enabled learning, despite its growing popularity, lacks comprehensive research to validate its efficacy, particularly in low-resource environments where access and implementation challenges may hinder outcomes. The scarcity of rigorous studies in these areas highlights a pressing need for further investigation to ensure that such interventions are evidence-based, equitable, and capable of delivering meaningful results.
  • School feeding and health interventions, widely implemented to improve nutrition, attendance, and cognitive outcomes, have insufficient rigorous data on their long-term effectiveness at the foundational learning level.
  • The built environment (classroom design, sanitation, infrastructure), theorised to influence learning, has few studies providing conclusive evidence on its role in foundational learning outcomes in Kenya.
  • Social-emotional learning initiatives, fostering interpersonal skills, also show a lack of evidence in foundational learning.


Numerous empirical studies, such as (Carr 2006), (Dawson et al. 2013), and (Masriyah 2018), have demonstrated that assessments are a critical component of foundational teaching and learning, as they establish whether educational objectives are being met. Assessments are considered the backbone of teaching at the right level since they help education actors know where to start and ensure corrective measures are timely. In addition, assessments are an integral component of the educational processes, including teaching, assessment, and learning, as they influence transitions, progression, instructional requirements, curriculum design, and, in some instances, funding. Despite these benefits, crucial foundational learning assessment data in Kenya, such as the Kenya Early Years Assessment, remains inaccessible.

The Hidden Dimensions of Learning 

The evidence gap map shows a distinct focus on literacy and numeracy, with notable evidence of strength in most intervention clusters. Although research in both is observed, there is a slightly higher number of studies centred on literacy across interventions, suggesting a greater priority on reading skills and language outcomes. 

However, the available evidence supporting the effectiveness of interventions in other key outcomes referred to as ‘hidden dimensions of learning’ remains limited and weak. These areas include socio-emotional behaviour, equity and inclusion, system and policy-level changes, classroom engagement and participation, and enrollment, attendance, and retention outcomes. This suggests that further rigorous research is needed to establish stronger empirical foundations in these domains. Strengthening the evidence base in these areas is critical for informing policy and practice, ensuring that interventions are both effective and equitable.

Methodological Challenges and Opportunities

The quality of the existing evidence raises its own set of issues. The available evidence base is characterised by a heavy reliance on qualitative research methods (Arisa & Gachoki, 2025), which dominate the literature, followed by quantitative studies and, to a lesser extent, mixed-methods approaches. Notably absent are studies employing behavioural or cross-sectional methodologies, suggesting a critical gap in research that captures real-time behavioural data or broader population-level trends. Furthermore, rigorous experimental and quasi-experimental designs, which are essential for establishing causality, are seldom utilised, while longitudinal studies, which track outcomes over time, remain rare. This methodological imbalance raises concerns about the robustness of the evidence, as the scarcity of experimental and longitudinal research limits the ability to draw definitive conclusions about intervention effectiveness. Strengthening the use of diverse, high-quality methodologies will be crucial for generating more reliable and actionable insights in future studies.

Building a Stronger Evidence Ecosystem

Addressing these challenges requires action on multiple fronts:

  1. Prioritise research in understudied areas: Critical interventions like remedial learning, EdTech, school feeding, and SEL lack sufficient rigorous evidence and require targeted research to assess their effectiveness.
  2. Strengthen the methodological rigour and testing of contextual adaptations of results; Most studies rely on qualitative methods, highlighting the need for more experimental, longitudinal, and context-sensitive designs to generate stronger causal evidence.
  3. Enhance policy uptake of strong evidence by scaling proven interventions: Proven approaches like teacher development and structured pedagogy should be scaled system-wide, guided by reliable data to ensure impact and avoid ineffective investments.
  4. Foster collaboration & capacity building by:
    1. Strengthening partnerships and co-creation initiatives between universities, CSOs, and the Ministry of Education and its departments.
    2. Developing open-access repositories to enable access to evidence and train local researchers in evidence synthesis.

Which Way Forward?

The stakes for improving Kenya’s foundational learning outcomes are immensely high. With each passing year, millions of children move through an education system that may or may not be providing them with the skills they need for future success. The gaps in our knowledge represent more than academic concerns—they translate directly into lost potential and missed opportunities.

Addressing these evidence gaps requires sustained commitment from all stakeholders. Researchers must pursue questions that matter most to practitioners. Policymakers need to demand and utilise better evidence when making decisions. Donors should prioritise funding for studies that fill critical knowledge gaps rather than reinforcing existing research patterns.

By taking these steps, we can transform Kenya’s foundational learning landscape from one of uncertainty to one where every child benefits from interventions proven to work in their specific context. The journey will require patience and persistence, but the destination—an education system truly built on evidence—is well worth the effort.

As we move forward, let us remember that behind every data point are real children whose futures depend on the quality of decisions we make today. By strengthening the evidence base, we honour our collective responsibility to ensure those decisions are the best they can be.

You can explore Kenya’s interactive evidence gap map at the Unlocking Data Initiative Website

When Data Speaks: Lessons from Cameroon, Kenya, and Malawi on Unlocking Foundational Learning

By Nain Mirabel Yuh and Rigobert Pambe

In Africa’s evolving education landscape, the power to tell our own story, through data, is becoming a defining force. Yet, while vast amounts of evidence are generated daily, too often it remains trapped in PDF reports or scattered across systems. This disconnect has real-world consequences because when data is not accessible or actionable, children’s learning suffers. Foundational learning outcomes have persistently remained low, not because there is no data, but because the information is not reaching those who can drive meaningful change. How do we bridge the divide between data and real-world impact? How can African stakeholders collaborate to turn insights into action?

These were the central questions of the Unlocking Data webinar, held on 12 February 2025, under the theme “Evidence to Action: Leveraging Ecosystem Players and Platforms to Scale Evidence Use.” Bringing together education researchers, policymakers, and data strategists from Cameroon, Kenya, and Malawi, the event highlighted the promise and the persistent challenges of building inclusive, trusted, and responsive data ecosystems for foundational learning.

The Current Landscape: Data exists, but is it used?

Across the three countries, the panellists agreed: foundational learning data exists but remains underutilised, siloed, or inaccessible to those who need it most, hindering evidence-based decision-making.

In Kenya, Charles Gachoki (Zizi Afrique, Kenya) described a fragmented system where international actors easily access education data, while local researchers and NGOs face red tape. “It’s who asks that determines access,” he observed. This disparity means that research driven by local context and needs is often constrained. 

Esme Kadzamira (Centre for Educational Research and Training, Malawi) added that in her country, foundational learning data is split across ministries, hindering collaboration. Even promising tools like unique learner identities are underused due to a lack of analytical capacity among ministry staff and local educators.

Rigobert Pambe (eBASE Africa, Cameroon) spoke of mistrust: government stakeholders question external data, while researchers doubt the reliability of official statistics. The result? Fragmented systems and missed opportunities for unified action based on a shared understanding of the challenges.

Barriers to evidence use: Trust, access, and representation

Three persistent challenges stood out, often interacting with each other to create a complex web of obstacles:

🔐 Data silos and restricted access

Ministries holding vast administrative datasets often operate in isolation, like separate islands. In Cameroon, access is further constrained by donor priorities and bureaucratic hurdles, making it incredibly difficult for local researchers or NGOs to obtain necessary information for program evaluation or policy advocacy, while Kenya’s county-level data remains locked away, unused at the point of need, preventing local decision-makers from tailoring interventions effectively.

🤝 Mistrust among ecosystem actors

A lack of transparency between government, academia, and civil society creates suspicion. Government officials may be wary of research findings that contradict official narratives, while researchers may doubt the accuracy or completeness of government statistics. One attendee asked, “How do we build trust in data sharing?” The answer: through shared ownership, ethical practices, and open dialogue.

🧩 Gaps in representation

From Malawi’s missing data on early childhood education to Kenya’s lack of disaggregated statistics for students with disabilities or in informal schools, entire populations are left out of the data story. Without data on marginalised groups, policies risk perpetuating inequities”

What’s working: Promising practices and bold ideas

Despite these barriers, the webinar showcased bright spots of innovation, demonstrating that progress is possible when stakeholders commit to collaborative and innovative approaches:

  • Real-Time Dashboards in Malawi allow district officials to monitor foundational learning outcomes like numeracy and literacy rates, though training is needed to turn these insights into local action that directly impacts classroom practice and resource allocation.
  • Cross-sector data collaborations in Kenya are enabling counties and universities to co-analyse data and co-design solutions, fostering locally relevant, evidence-driven interventions.
  • Cameroon’s push for a centralized data repository aims to open up research access and align data flows across actors potentially breaking down existing silos and facilitating a more holistic view of the education system.
  • A data-sharing portal for education modelled after Malawi’s agriculture sector is in early design proof that solutions can cross sectors and borders. This cross-sector learning is vital for identifying innovative approaches to data governance and use.

Scaling what works: The way forward

To truly move from evidence to action, these recommendations build on the bright spots and aim to dismantle the identified barriers:

✅Embrace open data policies and anonymisation frameworks

Without privacy standards, governments hesitate to share data perpetuating silos and limiting access for researchers and civil society. Malawi’s experience with the Examinations Board shows how anonymisation tools can build confidence and unlock access to valuable datasets for public good research.

🧠Invest in capacity building at all levels

As Rigobert emphasised, data is underutilised not just because it’s inaccessible but because people don’t always know how to use it effectively to inform decisions. Training in analysis, visualisation, and storytelling is critical for policymakers, educators, and local officials to translate data into actionable insights.

🏛️ Empowering sub-National actors

Districts and counties often sit on untapped data. By building local capacity in data collection, analysis, and use and incentivising use, they can become laboratories for innovation and equity-driven reform.

Evidence is Power — But only if we use it for impact

The Unlocking Data webinar closed with a powerful message:

“Publicly funded data should be made a public good,” said Laté Lawson. “We must build cultures, systems, and policies that reflect this truth.”

The path forward is clear. We need:

  • Stronger collaborations across sectors, bridging divides between government, academia, and civil society.
  • Open and ethical data-sharing practices, supported by clear policies and anonymisation.
  • Investments in digital infrastructure and analytical capacity, empowering stakeholders at all levels
  • A cultural shift where data use is the norm, not the exception, driven by leadership and demonstrated success. Ultimately, the goal is not just to collect data but to use it effectively and equitably to improve foundational learning outcomes for every child.

📢 Join the movement

The Unlocking Data Initiative is building a continent-wide Community of Practice to connect data producers and users across education ecosystems. Whether you’re a policymaker, researcher, practitioner, or funder, there’s a seat at the table for you.

🔗 Join the community
📖 Explore the reports
🗣️ Share your insights, amplify your work, and be part of the movement to make evidence count—because education data should never go to waste.

Bridging the Data-Evidence Gap in Education for Improving Foundational Learning in Malawi

By Paul Chiwaya, Louiss Saddick, Halima Twabi, and Esme Kadzamira

Invisible evidence and inaccessible data undermining the progress of foundational learning in Malawi. What will it take to make evidence visible and data accessible?

Introduction

In this blog, we explore gaps in evidence availability and data accessibility that hinder informed decision-making on foundational learning in Malawi, and discuss the key actions needed to make evidence visible and data accessible. We conducted a country situational analysis to map data and evidence on foundational learning since 2010. The findings reveal that despite increasing recognition of the importance of foundational skills such as literacy, numeracy, and socio-emotional competencies, progress is held back by high internal inefficiencies, poor learning outcomes, and an underutilised evidence base that remains sparse, fragmented, and often inaccessible (⇡Kadzamira et al., 2025; ⇡Asim & Gera, 2024).

The state of Foundational Learning in Malawi

Malawi’s education system has long struggled with chronic resource constraints, inadequate infrastructure, high repetition rates, and high pupil-teacher ratios—factors that continue to undermine the delivery of quality foundational education. These systemic challenges have made it difficult to ensure that all children acquire basic literacy and numeracy skills. Despite concerted efforts by the government and development partners, learning outcomes at the foundational level remain alarmingly low.

National assessments conducted since the early 2000s, such as the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA), reveal that a significant proportion of Malawian learners in the early grades are not meeting the expected benchmarks for reading and numeracy (⇡Pouezevara et al., 2012; ⇡Brombacher, 2019). These challenges are particularly acute in rural areas, where shortages of qualified teachers and adequate learning materials are most severe (⇡Asim & Gera, 2024). 

To help turn the tide, international organisations like Save the Children, USAID, and the World Bank have stepped in with programs to boost foundational learning in Malawi. These programs have introduced early literacy and numeracy interventions, teacher training, and community engagement initiatives. But there’s a catch—without reliable data to track progress, it’s difficult to determine their effectiveness, identify what works and what doesn’t, and sustainability build on any gains made.

Data gaps and inaccessibility: A major barrier to progress

A significant obstacle to improving foundational learning in Malawi is the lack of accessible and reliable data. Accurate data collection is crucial for understanding the state of learning in the country, identifying improvement areas, and measuring the effectiveness. One of the key issues is the sheer inaccessibility of data. Much of the data on foundational learning is collected through large-scale assessments, national surveys, and international evaluations. Yet, this information is not always publicly available or easily accessible to stakeholders who need it most. While government ministries, international organisations, and research institutions may collect valuable data, the lack of a centralised database or platform to share and access this data presents a major barrier to progress.

Data is often siloed, either within government agencies or within the organisations that commissioned the studies. These restrictions limit collaboration and hinder the use of data to inform national policies and programming. Without clear, open, and transparent data systems, stakeholders such as educators, policymakers, and civil society organisations struggle to make data-driven decisions to improve foundational learning.

Furthermore, limited access to education data in Malawi hinders efforts to identify gaps and inconsistencies in the data system, making it difficult to gain a clear understanding of the challenges learners face in acquiring foundational skills. For instance, while assessments like EGRA and EGMA provide some insight into literacy and numeracy learning outcomes, far less information is available about socio-emotional learning. Data on the learning environment, including teacher-student interactions, the quality of instructional materials, and the role of parental involvement, is also scarce. This incomplete picture means that interventions may only address a portion of the problem, inadvertently leaving critical areas overlooked.

The invisibility of evidence: A hindrance to effective policy

The problem of invisible evidence is closely tied to the issue of data gaps. Even when data is collected, it is often not synthesised into actionable evidence that can inform policy, programs, and decision-making. As a result, foundational learning interventions in Malawi are sometimes based on assumptions rather than robust evidence, reducing their overall effectiveness.

Another aspect of this challenge is the limited analysis of students’ progress over time. Although our mapping exercise revealed the existence of longitudinal datasets that can be used to analyse students’ progress over time, these datasets have not been analysed. As a result, it is difficult to determine whether interventions aimed at improving foundational learning have sustained effects on learners’ outcomes. Furthermore, limited research exists on the specific needs of different regions, such as rural versus urban areas, which can result in one-size-fits-all solutions that may not address the unique challenges faced by various communities.

Addressing the gaps: Steps toward improvement

While the challenges related to data and evidence are significant, they are not insurmountable. Several key actions can be taken to address these issues and increase the use and users of foundational learning data in Malawi:

  • Strengthening data systems through co-creation of a centralised data portal: One critical step is strengthening Malawi’s education data systems. This should involve creating a centralised platform where data from different sources—government assessments, donor programs, and independent studies—can be housed and accessed by all stakeholders. Such a platform should prioritise openness, accessibility, and transparency, allowing for real-time data sharing and breaking down existing data silos.
  • Improving data collection: There is a vital need to improve the quality and scope of data collection efforts. Beyond literacy and numeracy, data should also capture socio-emotional skills, teacher quality, classroom environments, and parental involvement. To ensure inclusivity and relevance for targeted interventions, data must be disaggregated by region, gender, socioeconomic status, and disability. Furthermore, regular feedback sessions are essential for identifying gaps in data collection methods and tools and for continuously improving data systems. 
  • Transforming data into actionable evidence: Collecting data is only the first step. Malawi must invest in systems and processes that transform raw data into actionable evidence. This includes establishing well-resourced national and sub-national data analysis units capable of synthesising complex datasets into clear, evidence-based policy recommendations. At the sub-national level, tools like dashboards enable rapid data visualisation and support timely, informed decision-making. These tools also play a critical role in identifying data gaps and improving data collection methods and tools.
  • Engaging stakeholders: Addressing the foundational learning crisis requires a collective effort from all stakeholders involved in the education sector. This includes the Ministry of Education, development partners, civil society organisations, and local communities. Regular stakeholder engagement will ensure that on-the-ground realities inform interventions and address the unique needs of different regions and groups, moving away from potentially ineffective one-size-fits-all approaches.
  • Fostering a culture of transparency and accountability: Finally, there needs to be a greater emphasis on transparency and accountability on data within the education sector. This can be done by, among other things, revising data-sharing policies to allow ethical sharing and access to important education data and creating agreements between the Ministry of Education and stakeholders to support evidence-based planning. By making data and evidence publicly available, the government can foster a culture of transparency and accountability. This, in turn, will encourage education stakeholders to utilise data-driven approaches in designing, implementing, and evaluating foundational learning programs, ultimately leading to more effective and sustainable outcomes.

The promise of foundational learning in Malawi cannot be realised without addressing the critical gaps in data and evidence. Strengthening data systems, improving the accessibility of information, and turning data into actionable evidence are essential to building an education system that provides every Malawian child with the skills they need to succeed in life. By confronting these challenges head-on, Malawi can ensure its foundational learning programs are effective, equitable, and sustainable, laying the groundwork for a brighter future for all. 

References

  • Brombacher, A. (2019). Research to Investigate Low Learning Achievement in Early Grade Numeracy (Standards 1–4) in Malawi: The victory of form over substance. HEART. https://docs.edtechhub.org/lib/AIUSUUNA
  • Kadzamira, E., Saddick, L., Twabi, H., & Chiwaya, P. (2025). Exploring the Foundational Learning Data and Knowledge Ecosystem in Sub-Saharan Africa: Malawi’s Situational Analysis. Unlocking Data. https://doi.org/10.53832/unlockingdata.1019

What it takes to move from education evidence to action

By Unlocking Data Initiative

This blog highlights key insights from a recent webinar that focused on foundational learning data from Cameroon, Kenya, and Malawi

Data and evidence are crucial in improving educational outcomes, including foundational learning. However, fragmented data ecosystems, limited accessibility to evidence and data, and mistrust between stakeholders continue to hinder its full potential. The Unlocking Data Initiative has been driving conversations to increase the use and users of data across sub-Saharan Africa. Since 2024, the initiative, funded by a GPE-KIX grant has been working in Cameroon, Kenya, and Malawi to map foundational learning data and implement collaborative research methods with data stakeholders to address bridge data gaps. In February, our webinar explored the state of foundational learning data in these countries, as published in 3 situational analysis reports for each of Kenya, Cameroon, and Malawi, as well as a cross-country report comparing challenges and lessons learnt. The webinar highlighted key challenges, opportunities, and practical ways to strengthen evidence use in foundational learning. Here are our key takeaways:

A critical first step: What do we know about the definitions of foundational learning in Unlocking Data focus countries?

As explained by Rigobert Pambe, Deputy Programme Lead at eBase, in Cameroon, foundational learning lacks a clear definition within policy and practice, making it difficult to align interventions across the region. While strong policies exist, implementation remains a challenge, particularly in conflict-prone areas. In Kenya, foundational learning focuses on improving learning outcomes for learners between the ages of 4 and 10.

The stakeholder landscape for foundational learning

Cameroon’s strong policies that drive foundational learning are embedded within the country’s education-governing institutions. Data from the country’s situational analysis reveal that the universities are not very involved in research on foundation learning. Most of the research outputs found focused on literacy and a little bit on teacher professional development. Areas like numeracy, social and emotional learning, and inclusive education were relatively neglected. 

In Kenya, the county government takes charge of early child development education (ECDE), while the national government delivers education services for primary 1 and upwards. This leads to fragmented efforts and inconsistent policies across the different levels of learning. 

In Malawi, foundational learning is managed across multiple ministries. The Ministry of Gender, Community Development, and Social Affairs is responsible for early childhood education, while the Ministry of Education focuses on basic and other levels of education, with little collaboration. This leads to gaps in data use and decision-making. 

Is fragmentation limiting data use and causing mistrust within the ecosystem?

Across all three countries, mistrust between government agencies, researchers, and policymakers limits the effective use of data. Governments often prefer to rely on their data, while researchers struggle to access official datasets. In Cameroon, research on foundational learning is limited, with universities largely disengaged. Much of the available data is published in English, limiting accessibility for francophone audiences, but also indicating limited opportunities for women to engage in data generation and publishing. A gendered analysis of publications also indicates limited female presence in the data generation space. In Kenya, researchers often reference data from the development sector or donor organisations such as the World Bank. In most cases, this data is easily accessed by development partners from the government because of a seemingly credible engagement between the government and the development sector. Meanwhile, in Malawi, researchers hold valuable insights on early childhood education, but much of their work remains siloed within universities, never making its way into classrooms where it’s needed most. This is mostly driven by researchers who fear the possibility of exposure of gaps in the data collection process and having their data plagiarized.

Gaps in foundational learning data

Across the countries of focus, research tends to focus heavily on literacy, with minimal attention to numeracy, social-emotional learning, inclusive education, and pre-primary readiness. Special needs education data remains scarce, making it difficult to design and implement inclusive policies. Data collected by governments is often outdated by the time it reaches decision-makers, as there is little integration with data collected by the respective ministries and departments, civil society organisations (CSOs) and universities.

What do we learn from what is working?

There are various opportunities to improve data use and data sharing. The Kenyan county governments are increasingly seeking support to package data into actionable reports, signalling a willingness to open data to the rest of the ecosystem and a shift towards evidence-based decision-making. In addition, a foundational learning community of practice has been formed to offer technical assistance on foundational learning policies and resource mobilization. Networks of organisations in Cameroon are coming together to share knowledge and set a common agenda for foundational learning, while in Malawi, new district-level data collection initiatives are piloting real-time dashboards, allowing for timely decision-making based on local needs.

How can the data ecosystem be strengthened across the three countries?

“The Kenyan universities, ministry directorates, and departments are now reaching out to co-create data collection tools, synthesize existing evidence, and in general strengthen the research functions. This is a good endorsement towards the long-term goal of evidence use in decision-making,” says Charles Gachoki, Research Manager, Evidence Synthesis and Translation, Zizi Afrique Foundation. To help strengthen this collaboration and put data into good use, creating champions and communities will encourage lateral learning for decision-making based on evidence.”

Building a central data repository will help in establishing a single open and accessible source of truth when it comes to connecting all data sources. Rigobert Pambe emphasises the need to establish a way to set up policies for data sharing, collection, and archiving. This unified, open-access platform for foundational learning data could streamline collaboration among stakeholders. While this could be a stronger solution, it needs an intentional and strategic investment in training and setting up digital systems that could help stakeholders collect, share, and analyze data more effectively.

There continues to be a call to create data sharing and archiving policies, in which clear regulations on data access, confidentiality, and use are put in place to build trust and increase data availability. There is an opportunity to learn from the other sector. For instance, in Malawi, the agricultural sector has successfully created a shared data portal linking donors, government agencies, CSOs, and academia. A similar model could be adapted for education and the stakeholders in Malawi are working on it, starting with building stakeholders’ capacity at the district level.

Moving Forward

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